We initially evaluated the expression of NOD-1 and NOD2- in human BM-derived MSC by RT-PCR. As shown in Fig. 1A, the in vitro expanded BM MSC showed a homogenous cell population with fibroblast like cells. In addition,

they were uniformly negative for markers of the haematopoietic lineage, including CD34, CD14 and CD4, and positive for CD105 (endoglin) and CD106 (vascular cell adhesion molecule 1) (Fig. 1B). RT-PCR analysis revealed the transcription of NOD-1, but not NOD-2 gene (Fig. 1C, as a representative example). To further support the RT-PCR data, protein extracts from MSC were analysed by Western blots using a monoclonal antibody against NOD-1. Consistent with the RT-PCR data, MSC expressed NOD1 protein (Fig. 1D). NOD1 senses the iE-DAP dipeptide which is found in peptidoglycan of all gram-negative and certain Palbociclib in vitro gram-positive bacteria whereas

NOD-2 recognizes the muramyl dipeptide (MDP) structure found in almost all bacteria U0126 [17]. First, we have used microarray to screen for potential transcripts whose levels may be affected by NOD-1 activation. Cells were treated overnight with iE-DAP dipeptide, a specific ligand for NOD-1. We also evaluated the response to Pam3CS(K)4, a prototypic TLR-2 ligand. Gene expression was normalized to cells treated with a control peptide (iE-Lys). Around 800 and 200 genes were altered by TLR2 and NOD-1 ligands, respectively. Amongst the altered genes, VEGFA, NOTCH-1, TRAF-7, DGCR-8, EPHB-1 receptor, CD9, SQSTM-1, CXCL-10, IRF-7 and galectin-3 (Gal-3) were significantly changed in response to NOD-1 and TLR-2 signalling. To validate the microarray data, initially, a set of primers specific for human vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), Gal-3, and EPHB-1 receptor (EPHB1) were used in reverse transcription (RT-PCR) analyses to establish their expression in MSC. VEGF-A is called just VEGF because it is the most important VEGF members. In agreement with the array data, Fig. 2A shows the upregulation of VEGF and Gal-3, and downreglation of EPH B1 receptor in response to TLR-2 or NOD-1 ligand. mafosfamide A set of upregulated

and downregulated genes were also assessed by real-time RT-PCR (Fig. 2B). Almost all analysed genes were significantly altered in response to TLR-2 or NOD-1 activation. The upregulation of Gal-3 and DGCR-8 was also validated by Western blots using specific antibodies (Fig. 3A and B). Gal-3 is a member of a large family of β-galactoside-binding animal lectins [18]. It is expressed in a variety of tissues and cell types, and is localized mainly in the cytoplasm, although, depending on the cell types and proliferative states, a significant amount of this lectin can be detected in the nucleus, on the cell surface or in the extracellular environment [18]. Therefore, in the next experiment we evaluated Gal-3 levels in culture supernatants by ELISA (Fig. 3D). BM MSC constitutively secreted Gal-3 and VEGF.