Traditionally, many modes of β-catenin activation have been reported in HCC. 14 It is unclear, however, whether various mechanisms of β-catenin activation in HCC will have similar and robust growth-promoting effects on tumor cells. Contrary to expectations, a study found that β-catenin/TCF activation was not equivalent when β-catenin stabilization was a consequence of CTNNB1

versus AXIN1 mutations. 15 It would have been useful to determine the cause of β-catenin activation in patients examined in the current Selleck Vemurafenib study. Would β-catenin activation due to the AR/CCRK axis be even more pronounced regardless of preexisting mutations in CTNNB1? Similar studies in vitro examining the effect of AR/CCRK on tumor cells expressing β-catenin with point mutations affecting key serine and threonine residues in exon-3 would be relevant in the future, because such mutations may be predicted to be autonomous of any upstream feed-forward regulation. In other words, mutations in CTNNB1 that are observed in 20%-40% of all HCC patients may

be free of GSK3β-dependent β-catenin phosphorylation and degradation click here and may in fact introduce a break in the proposed positive regulatory circuit. The authors elegantly unveil one of the mechanisms of sex-related disparity of HCC and extend the existing findings that AR and testosterone contribute to HCC predominance in males. The major conclusion drawn from the study is that the presence of androgens in males engages the AR to stimulate 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 the CCRK expression, which activates β-catenin signaling, which in turn would enhance expression of EGFR and cyclin-D1 (thus promoting cell proliferation) and at the same time would up-regulate AR expression and activity and thus establish a positive regulatory cycle (Fig. 1). CCRK belongs to the mammalian cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family and although it has been shown to be up-regulated in several cancers, its role and regulation are not fully understood. In fact, it has been reported elsewhere that CCRK does not have an

intrinsic CDK-activating kinase (CAK) activity, but that it does enhance cell proliferation. 16 It is likely that through additional, as yet uncharacterized interactions, CCRK may be influencing Thr390 phosphorylation of GSK3β. Significant studies will be necessary to extrapolate these interactions, especially because p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is known to induce GSK3β inactivation through this specific event. 17 AR signaling has been attributed to induction of cellular oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro. Intriguingly, β-catenin has been shown to also regulate the redox state of the cell. In fact, recent studies have shown that β-catenin can switch from binding to TCF4 to other transcription factors like hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) or FOXO and can mount an antioxidant response.