The increasing use of next-generation

sequencing in a screening role across Europe will revolutionize understanding of both endemic and exotic circulation of low-pathogenicity arboviruses, driven initially by investigations of unexplained clinical cases in affected hosts ( Delwart, 2007 and Radford et al., 2012). The broad-scale sensitivity of next generation sequencing techniques will allow increasing use of sentinel surveillance worldwide by reducing cost/benefit ratios that currently make such schemes unworkable. These data are likely to be complemented in due course by analyses CDK inhibitor of the entire viral populations of Culicoides themselves, an area that has yet to be explored with next-generation sequencing methodologies, but which has already shown promise in identifying novel virus species and strains in mosquitoes ( Bishop-Lilly et al., 2010). In addition, detailed serological surveys of arboviruses currently being conducted for SBV on humans in Europe may prove useful in predicting points of contact between vectors and hosts if a zoonotic Culicoides-borne arbovirus emerges in Europe. Screening for potential clinical disease or seroconversion in human populations should be targeted towards geographic areas that include overlap between C. impunctatus and C. obsoletus populations, as preliminarily characterized for Scotland ( Purse et al., 2012).

A greater understanding of the degree of exposure of humans to Culicoides biting in Europe during both work and recreation would complement these studies. There is also an additional requirement to understand how the host preferences and abundance of livestock- Selleckchem NLG919 and human-biting Culicoides species vary seasonally across heterogeneous suburban and recreational landscapes. Direct examination of potential introduction routes of Culicoides-borne arboviruses into northern Europe

would be helpful in providing a framework for risk assessment ( Napp et al., 2013). If specific cargoes could be defined as presenting a particular risk of containing Culicoides, this would allow analysis of import patterns and habitat of origin and destination ports facilitating inference regarding species of arbovirus that could potentially be introduced ( Tatem and Hay, 2007 and Tatem et al., 2006). Similarly, tracing of human movements into Europe from areas Clomifene of endemicity have already demonstrated utility in mosquito-borne arbovirus research and could be usefully extended to monitor the risk of emerging Culicoides-borne infections ( Tatem and Hay, 2007). Two major areas of uncertainty exist in the degree of vector competence of Culicoides species present in Europe for human-pathogenic arboviruses and the ability of available livestock and wildlife hosts to replicate these arboviruses to transmissible levels. To date, no studies of infection of abundant human and livestock biting species of Culicoides in Europe have been carried out with arboviruses transmitted from animals to humans or among humans.