On the other hand, in the presence of reward or punishment, the orienting response is rapidly conditioned. The possibility of conditioning the cortical arousal component of the orienting response was proposed

many years ago by Kupalov, a student and close collaborator of Pavlov. Addressing a meeting at the New York Academy of Sciences in 1961, he said, “… these processes of a general activating character can be reproduced by conditioned reflex means: …. It follows that we may speak of particular conditioned reflexes in which the reaction to the external stimulus culminates MK0683 not in a definite external reaction, but in a change in the functional state of the brain” (Kupalov, Selleckchem FK228 1961, p. 1,040). He named this conditioned cortical arousal the “Truncated Conditioned Reflex” (TCR) (Kupalov, 1935; cited in Giurgea, 1974). Kupalov went on to suggest that the experimental context acquired the properties of a conditioned stimulus (CS) that could elicit the

conditioned response (CR) involving an increase in cortical arousal, attention, and expectancy (Kupalov, 1935 and Kupalov, 1948; cited in Giurgea, 1974). Because of the important role of the context in eliciting this response, he called it, alternatively, the “situational conditioned response” (Giurgea, 1989). The discovery of the ascending reticular activating system by Moruzzi and Magoun several years later (Moruzzi

and Magoun, 1949) provided Kupalov with a brainstem-mediating mechanism for the putative truncated conditioned reflex, lending support to the concept of conditioned regulation of cortical excitation and attention by brainstem afferents (Moruzzi and Magoun, 1949). According to this scheme, the experimental context, for example, the chamber in which the conditioning procedure is carried out, becomes associated with the reinforcement and as such elicits the preparatory reflex. The cortical arousal mediated through the reticular activating system enhances the subsequent explicit CR to the CS (Giurgea, 1974; Sara, 1985). If the ascending reticular activating system mediates the truncated Levetiracetam conditioned reflex by arousing the brain and enhancing perceptual and behavioral responses to salient stimuli, this role is shared among the numerous components of the reticular formation. Based on contemporary anatomical literature, the nucleus gigantocellularis is the basis of this system. Cells in the nucleus gigantacellularis respond to sensory stimulation in all modalities and they are considered to be the “master cells” for a general arousal function in the brain (Pfaff et al., 2012). These cells have widespread projections to brainstem, pons, midbrain, and basal forebrain.