e., calculated using triceps and subscapular skinfold measurements, height, and weight) Adiposity index
was inversely related (significantly) to meal frequency in both men and women after adjusting for caloric intake. In summary, as meal frequency increased, overweight classification decreased. Drummond et al. [16] (1998) 42 males and 37 females (20-55 yrs) with a BMI from 18-30. (Suspected under-reporters were excluded from final analysis) 7 day food diary; Rucaparib manufacturer 7 day activity diary, 48 hour HR monitoring, 4 site skinfold thickness, height, and body weight. Significant negative correlation between eating frequency and body weight was observed in males, but not females. Eating frequency was significantly correlated with total energy intake in females, but not in males. In both men and women no significant correlations between eating frequency and total energy
expenditure were observed. Ruidavets et al. [17] (2002) 330 males (45-64 yrs) 3 day diet record, estimated physical activity (i.e., leisure, work related, and walking/cycling to work), body mass index, and waist-to-hip ratio After eliminating under reporters (new sample size = 297) and restrained eaters (new sample size = 243), a significant negative correlation between eating frequency and BMI as well as waist-to-hip ratio was observed. Ma et al. [18] (2003) 251 males and 248 females (20-70 yrs) 24 hour dietary recalls, physical activity recalls, body weight, BMI, and physical activity recalls were collected every 3 months for 1 year After adjusting for CX-5461 mw age, sex, physical activity, education, and total energy intake, participants reporting 4 or more eating episodes per day had a significantly lower risk of developing obesity than those eating 3 or fewer times per day. Franko et al. [19] (2008) 1,209 black and 1,166 white female school children (9-19 yrs) Multiple 3-day food diaries taken over several years, height, weight, and self reported physical activity Girls between 9-19 years old, that ate 3 or more meals per day
had significantly lower BMI-for-age Z scores. Table 2 Observational Studies Refuting the Effectiveness why of Increased Meal Frequency on Weight loss/Fat loss Study (year) Population Measurements Findings Dreon et al. [20] (1988) 155 sedentary, overweight males (i.e., 120-140% of ideal weight) (30-59 yrs) 7 day diet records, physical activity questionnaires, VO2 max treadmill test, resting metabolic rate via indirect calorimetry, hydrostatic weighing, and body mass. Meal frequency did not have a significant effect on percent body fat, total weight, fat-free mass, or resting metabolic rate. Kant et al. [21] (1995) 2,580 males and 4,567 females (25-74 yrs) Baseline 24-hour dietary recall that assessed meal frequency and compared to follow-up interview several years later. Body weight, BMI, and physical activity were also assessed. When regression analysis accounted for various covariates (i.e.