They removed the mLN of the sheep and cannulated the lymph to analyse the cells for their expression pattern. In the first study, increased levels of Th2 type and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-5, IL-13 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α were detected in the resistant sheep compared to the susceptible ones [68]. Furthermore, they showed a changed intestinal microenvironment towards Th2 response-increased specific antibody production after repeated infection [67,69] and an increase of anti-oxidant activities using the microarray technique in cannulated cells [66]. A similar life-saving role of LN was published many years

ago by other groups for M. leprae and L. tropica infection. The bacteria were injected into the footpad of mice after popliteal adenectomy and a severe exacerbation of the disease was measured [13,70]. In contrast, in immune responses Ceritinib in vivo to diphtheria toxin or in viral infection (influenza

virus PR8) no significant difference between LN-resected and LN-bearing mice was detected [18,71]. Thus, LN are involved strongly in the BMS-777607 cost induction of immune responses in many different inflammatory conditions, so they play a major life-saving role in infections [19,22,64,72]. There is experimental evidence to support which cell types migrate from the draining area to the LN and which function a specific cell type has in the induction O-methylated flavonoid of an immune response. Immune cells come together in the LN to induce a protective, directed and synchronized reaction, but many questions about the function and role of LN within the systemic organization remain to be answered. One area of research is the decision process within the LN to induce an immune response or tolerance to foreign or self-antigen. Therefore, LN dissection is an important method with which to examine all these questions (Fig. 4). Furthermore, therapeutic

advantages have been found in animal models in many different diseases after LN dissection, and these also need to be determined in more detail. Understanding the mechanism of immune response or tolerance induction within the LN, and also the role of LN in systemic reaction, will lead to new insights for therapeutic studies. We wish to thank Melanie Bornemann for excellent technical assistance, Sheila Fryk for correction of the English and Matthias Ochs for critical reading of this manuscript. The work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB621/ A10). The authors declare no conflicts of interest. “
“The fifth international γδ T-cell conference was held in Freiburg, Germany, from May 31 to June 2, 2012, bringing together approximately 170 investigators from all over the world.