[3] Innate immune responses are specific, triggered by binding of innate immune receptors to their appropriate ligands, thereby initiating a downstream signaling cascade culminating in upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine, chemokine, and interferon production. In contrast with adaptive immunity, the innate immune

response is rapid in onset and requires no previous exposure to the pathogen.[4, 5] TLRs are a family of non-clonal, germline-encoded, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that give the innate immune system considerable specificity for a large range of pathogen click here classes.[6] To date, there are 10 functional TLRs identified in humans (TLR 1–10).[7] Each receptor has two domains: an extracellular leucine-rich LRR domain

and an intracellular Toll-interleukin (IL-1) receptor (TIR) domain.[8] TLRs recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, or PAMPs, which are highly conserved molecules expressed by classes of invading pathogens. TLR2 and TLR4 also recognize endogenous components derived from dying or damaged host cells (called damage-associated molecular patterns, or DAMPs), Acalabrutinib supplier allowing inflammatory responses to be initiated by trauma to host cells.[9] Commonly cited PAMPs and DAMPs, and their corresponding TLRs are outlined in Table 1. Greater breadth of specificity of TLR binding is created by dimerization of TLR2 with TLRs 1 and 6, and accessory proteins such as MD2 that bind to TLRs to alter binding specificity.[10] The localization of TLRs within cells is also important, for example TLRs that bind viral RNA and bacterial DNA are located within endosomes,

as these organelles do not contain host RNA or DNA.[11] There are also other cytosolic pathogen recognition receptors in addition to TLRs that form part of the innate immune system, including the RNA helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene 1, melanoma differentiation-associated Oxymatrine gene 5, and laboratory of genetics and physiology 2[12] and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors. However, their involvement in HCV infection is beyond the scope of this review. TLRs are expressed ubiquitously; however, levels of expression vary for different cell types. This compartmentalizes TLR function by regulating access to TLR ligands for binding and determining the subsequent signaling pathway and inflammatory response that is activated by TLR ligand interactions.[13] Expression of TLRs by cell type in both peripheral immune cells and liver cells is outlined in Table 2. The immune system of the liver is highly specialized to prevent constant immune activation in the face of continual bombardment with pathogens, as it receives the entire blood supply of the gastrointestinal tract.[14] TLR messenger RNA (mRNA) expression is therefore low in the liver, favoring TLR ligand tolerance; however, in pathological conditions, TLR expression is induced to allow appropriate TLR activation.