The created electrochemical gradient of protons and resulting mitochondria membrane potential (ΔΨM), drives ATP formation from ADP and phosphate [32]. Thus, any damage to mitochondria plays an important role in a wide range of human diseases [33] and [34]. Cell death will be mediated by series of events like loss of ΔΨM, Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor release of cytochome c, and depletion of ATP [35]. In normal physiologically active cells electrons provided to the respiratory chain by the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 are transferred from complex to complex and generate an electrochemical potential ΔΨM across the inner membrane. When protons accumulate

in metabolically-altered mitochondria, the ΔΨM increases and the mitochondria are hyperpolarized. This state is usually associated with ROS generation, due to poor electron flux leading to a direct reaction with oxygen [36]. If detoxification systems like manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), mitochondrial

glutathione peroxidase or GSH are overwhelmed, the ROS levels are increased, mitochondrial functions are impaired and cellular reactions can also be disturbed [37] and [38]. Our results are in agreement with earlier reports and it showed that mitochondrial oxygen consumption pattern in the cells treated with BPA was significantly reduced Z-VAD-FMK research buy compared to control with substantial decrease in the ATP content and increased mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). On contrary, cytotoxic effect mediated by increased lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction due to BPA was negated by treatment with ADW in HepG2 cells. It was clearly shown that oxygen consumption pattern, ATP production were significantly increased, while ΔΨM was decreased thus facilitating the increased survival of HepG2 cells. But similar

results were not observed with natural antioxidant vitamin E (results not shown) thus indicating that compounds present in ADW exerted cellular protection by novel mechanism not in lines with natural antioxidant buy Obeticholic Acid compounds. During mitochondrial toxicity due to impaired oxygen consumption and ATP production cellular antioxidant system plays a significant role in restoring the normal function of hepatocytes. Beside reversal of mitochondrial associated toxicity by ADW, we report significant decrease in lipid peroxides (MDA) with increased enzymic and non-enzymic antioxidant levels in HepG2 cells which is detrimental for maintaining cellular homeostasis. It is known that, GSH a non enzymic antioxidant plays an important role in hepatocyte defense against ROS, free radicals and electrophilic metabolites [39] and [40]. Hence, severe GSH depletion leaves cells more vulnerable to oxidative damage by radicals and increases protein thiolation or oxidation of SH groups that may lead to alterations in cellular calcium homeostasis [40].